This article presents the results of an investigation of the construct validity of J. B. Biggs's (1987) theory of learning approaches and of R. J. Sternberg's (1988) theory of thinking styles in two Chinese populations. The study is also an examination of the nature of the relations between the two theories. University students from Hong Kong (n = 854) and from Nanjing, mainland China (n = 215), completed the Study Process Questionnaire (J. B. Biggs, 1992) and the Thinking Styles Inventory (R. J. Sternberg & R. K. Wagner, 1992). Results indicated that both inventories were reliable and valid for assessing the constructs underlying their respective theories among both Hong Kong and Nanjing university students. Results also showed that the learning approaches and thinking styles are related in the hypothesized ways: The surface approach was hypothesized to be positively and significantly correlated with styles associated with less complexity, and negatively and significantly correlated with the legislative, judicial, liberal, and hierarchical styles. The deep approach was hypothesized to be positively and significantly correlated with styles associated with more complexity, and negatively and significantly correlated with the executive, conservative, local, and monarchic styles. Implications of these relations are discussed.
[Copyright of Journal of Psychology is the property of Heldref Publications. Full article may be available at the publisher's website:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223980009598230 ]

Previous studies have suggested that Western constructs of academic motivation may operate in different ways in Asian contexts due to differences in the cultural environment. In the present study, the integrative effects of achievement goals, strategy orientations, and effort expenditure on achievement outcomes were examined among 1950 seventh-grade Chinese students in Hong Kong. Participants completed separate questionnaires for mathematics and English. Results for the two subjects were largely similar. There were significant positive relationships between mastery and performance goals, between cooperative and competitive orientations, as well as between understanding and memorizing strategies. Regression analyses further revealed that goals and strategies were highly predictive of effort expenditure, but only goals and effort significantly predicted achievement outcome, with strategies being barely significant. The need to further investigate how Chinese students reconcile the apparently antithetical orientations in learning as well as the effective strategies contributing to their learning is indicated.
[Copyright of International Journal of Psychology is the property of Psychology Press . Full article may be available at the publisher's website:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207590701836323]

It is argued that language learning ought to be interactive. The traditional language classroom provides a favourable interactive situation for language learners. By contrast, the distance education mode is limited in some ways regarding language learning. Necessarily, distance education involves, primarily, self-learning. Face-to-face learning opportunities are scant compared with traditional classroom-based learning. It is, therefore, a challenge for language professionals to explore new ways of teaching language, the speaking skills in particular, within the constraints of the distance education mode. Being able to master English -- an increasingly important international language -- provides a key to information and learning societies in the 21[&SUP] stcentury. In this paper, I will suggest some ways of maximizing the amount of interactive activities in English language distance learning, based on my work-based experience as a course developer of a new English enhancement course offered by the Open University of Hong Kong. I will focus on the development of listening and speaking skills, which are in fact the most problematic areas -- the speaking skill, in particular, involves two-way communication. I will consider the issue from the perspectives of learners' motivation, peer support and technological support. Finally, I will present findings of a survey on the learners and tutors' feedback on the teaching materials of this new English language enhancement course.
[Copyright of Open Learning is the property of Routledge. Full article may be available at the publisher's website:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02680510307413 ]