This study explores the trends of chatbots in education studies by conducting a literature review to analyze relevant papers published in the Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) journals by searching the Web of Science (WoS) database. From the analysis results, it was found that the United States, Taiwan and Hong Kong are the top three contributing countries or regions. In addition, most studies adopted quantitative methods in their research design, such as ANOVA (Analysis of variance), descriptive statistics, t test, and correlation analysis. ANCOVA (Analysis of covariance) was the most frequently adopted approach for comparing the performances or perceptions of different groups of students. From the analysis results, the greatest proportion of studies adopted guided learning, followed by no learning activities. It was determined that the studies related to chatbots in education are still in an early stage since there are few empirical studies investigating the use of effective learning designs or learning strategies with chatbots. This implies much room for conducting relevant research to drive innovative teaching in terms of improving the learning process and learning outcomes. Finally, we highlight the research gaps and suggest several directions for future research based on the findings in the present study. © 2021 Informa UK Limited.

BACKGROUND: The potential of natural language processing tools such as chatbots in learning a second or foreign language has not yet been fully realised (Dale, 2016; Fryer et al., 2019). Language learning occurs through interaction with classmates and teachers, which provides comprehensible input, feedback on output and the opportunity to modify output (Mackey, 2012). Chatbots can serve as an always-on source of interaction. In this study, a chatbot was designed and deployed using Dialog flow Messenger. It acts as a conversational interface for English learners and is available on our website or as a mobile application (app). Language learning is most effective when it is immediate and contextual, so this chatbot not only ‘chats’ but also guides learners to appropriate language study resources. It puts students in control of their learning by answering specific questions (e.g., How do I refer to sources in written texts and oral presentations?, Where can I find IELTS materials?, What is the present perfect?); providing customised learning options; and allowing students to learn at their own level, pace, and at a time of their choosing. This study investigates English language students’ attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions towards using a customised chatbot to enhance language learning.METHODS: Participants consisted of students and teachers (n=4) from a compulsory English for Academic Purposes course at the largest public university in Hong Kong. In this study, the students (n=76) had access to the chatbot for two months. Data on attitudes, beliefs and perceptions regarding the chatbot were collected using a questionnaire and focus groups; transcripts were collected to identify questions put to the chatbot. This mix of methods was chosen to provide rich, detailed, and complex accounts of users’ experiences.RESULTS: Findings from the questionnaire and focus groups are consistent with previous research that reported positive learning experiences with chatbots (Fryer & Carpenter

BACKGROUND: This study introduces the English Language Centre’s Personal Learning Assistant, namely chatbot, an innovative language teaching and study tool for independent and effective language learning. This relatively new and under-researched area of study will, through the use of chatbots, open new and exciting teaching opportunities (Kessler, 2018). Chatbots necessitate communicative exchange, thus enhancing dialogue-based learning (Fryer et al., 2017; Thompson, Gallacher, & Howarth, 2018). In English language acquisition, teachers traditionally adopt a facilitator role. In contrast, chatbots, as conversational agents, provide students with a natural language interface. In many contexts, including English as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL), technology has been developed to assist language learners. However, there is still a need to practice the language with an on-demand ‘conversational partner’ (Kim, 2017), and chatbots can address this requirement (Shawar, 2017; Wang & Petrina, 2013). This study investigates how students perceive the Personal Learning Assistant as a supplement to direct teacher input in language learning.METHODS: Participants consisted of students from a general English course at the largest public university in Hong Kong. The study adopted an exploratory qualitative approach, collecting two types of data in two phases. The first phase, a questionnaire (n=47), provided an overall picture of the research problem and informed the second phase of data collection, which comprised semi structured interviews (n=12) (Ivankova, Creswell, & Stick, 2006). Thematic analysis of the interviews allowed the researcher to interpret participants’ voices and gain a holistic understanding of their views.RESULTS: The questionnaires and semi-structured interviews revealed that participants preferred the chatbot to traditional study methods such as visiting a library or asking a teacher. They benefited from unlimited opportunities to